The Fight against Prejudice: Queer Portrayal on Children’s Television

Introduction

Since its creation and mass production, television has taken a significant role in impacting society. It's become a tool, not only for entertainment but education. On average, children ages 6-11 spend about 28 hours watching TV (Boyse, 2010). Shows like Sesame Street and Dora the Explorer have a clear, educational purpose; however, there are shows with less clear motives. People should be aware everything children experience is a form of education. They learn and adapt their behaviors and beliefs based on what they are exposed to.

Many parents love watching their children learn more about the world around them, however, some parents avoid talking about sexuality with their children. An example is telling children babies come from storks. This myth appeared in the popular children's movie, Dumbo. If children aren't introduced to diversity, the next best form of exposure is television. Many might say not being introduced to identity at a young age does no harm due to the queer community's "small" size; however, this is false. Approximately 9 million Americans identify as LGBT (Gates, 2011). That's a huge community of people that some children don't even know about. According to Pew Institute, 12 is the median age that LGB adults first felt they might be queer (Pew Research Center, 2013). Not knowing other options can create a feeling of disconnection and isolation. As writer/creator, Rebecca Sugar (2016) said in an interview with PBS NewsHour, "We are constantly reinforcing the idea that there's a certain kind of love that's innocent. What you learn as a kid when you don't relate to any of those stories, is that you are denied the dream of love." When compared to the actual size of the LGBT community, there is a significant amount under-representation and misrepresentation. The Gay & Lesbian Alliance against Defamation, also known as GLAAD, an American media monitoring organization founded by LGBT people in the media, conducts an annual study each year about representation on television. According to GLAAD's 2016 report, of the 895 regular characters expected to appear on primetime scripted broadcast programming in the coming year, 43 were identified as LGBTQ. Specifically, there are twelve lesbian characters, thirty-five gay men, sixteen bisexual females, seven bisexual males, and three transgender characters on broadcast television networks (GLAAD, 2016). This is significant under-representation (not to mention all the misrepresentations) of how large the community really is. Many people can agree that art is a reflection of the world that it's made in. It's the same with television; it reflects the society that we live in.

There's been an enormous amount of controversy surrounding the LGBT community. With gay marriage legalized and the new president, hate groups have been very active. It would obviously be very helpful to reduce some of this tension with more tolerance and love. By applying logic and social psychological theory, an argument can be made that increased positive portrayal of the LGBT community in children's television would reduce societal prejudice and empower self-love and acceptance over time.

Historic Significance

Familiarity with queer historic value and portrayal adaptation is important to understand queer representation. Gay people have always existed. According to Dr. Gregory Herek (2012), "Before the High Middle Ages, homosexual acts appear to have been tolerated or ignored by the Christian church throughout Europe. This is corroborated by Byrne Fone, who explains the history of homophobia. In ancient Greek culture, homosexual acts were considered normal and were "associated with the highest social, spiritual, and moral values" (Fone, 2001). It was custom for older men to train younger men in the art of war, the hunt and intimacy (Fone, 2001). PBS's (2016) series, Empires, website agrees, "It is undeniable that homosexual relationships played an important role in ancient Greek society."

At some point between the Roman Empire and the Renaissance, homophobia increased, often attributed to the increased power of the Roman Catholic Church and its condemnation of non-procreative acts (sodomy). The first law criminalizing homosexual acts was passed in 1533 in England making it punishable by hanging (Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry, 2012).This act was part of King Henry VIII's anticlerical campaign to discredit the Catholic Church and seize its property. By the 1800s, homosexuality began to be examined from a medical standpoint. This is where the argument of homosexuality being a mental illness first began. Hypothesizing that homosexuality was a mental disorder discredited the legal prosecution of homosexuals. If they could be seen as mentally insane, they would be innocent and therefore could not be punished for their "crimes". This protected many from being hanged but also began a new wave of theories, "cures" and poor treatments. Karl Ulrichs (1825-1895) was one of the first activists for gay rights, arguing that homosexuality was a hereditary condition. He hypothesized that homosexuals had a female soul in a male body. Ulrichs proposed that homosexuals were a form of psychosexual hermaphrodites (Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry, 2012). German physician, Karl Westphal (1833-1890), agreed with Ulrichs, arguing that homosexuals should be under psychiatric care rather than prosecuted (Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry, 2012). As the evidence explains, beliefs about homosexuality evolved from sin to illness. French neurologist, Jean-Martin Charcot, and Italian forensic expert, Arrigo Tamassia, interpreted homosexuality as a "sexual inversion". Charcot believed this inversion was a neuropsychiatric degenerative condition and therefore a serious mental illness. Around the mid and late 1800s, Richard von Krafft-Ebing published a book that popularized the term "homosexuality" and examined it as a severe manifestation of hereditary degeneration. Toward the end of his life, after meeting many, Krafft-Ebing changed his views and believed that homosexuals could live good and productive lives (Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry, 2012). Around the early 1900s, sexologist, Havelock Ellis (1859-1939) believed that homosexuality was a congenital variation of sexuality and not an illness. German sexologist, Magnus Hirschfeld was one of the pioneers of activism and medical research of homosexuality. The GAP (2012) website explains, "He founded the Scientific Humanitarian Committee in Berlin in 1897, which lobbied for the decriminalization of homosexual acts. He also founded the Institute for Sexual Science (1919-1933), which was closed down by the Nazis" Hirschfeld argued that homosexuality was an "intermediate sex and a natural, biological variant in the spectrum between perfect maleness and femaleness" (Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry, 2012). Dr. Gregory Herek (2012), Professor of Psychology at the University of California at Davis, agrees with the timeline proposed by the GAP website. Herek (2012) discusses the leading physiatrists and their beliefs, mentioning Havelock Ellis, Sigmund Freud, and Evelyn Hooker. He completed an analysis through studying these explanations and how they've adapted over the years and concluded that, "Empirical evidence and professional norms do not support the idea that homosexuality is a form of mental illness or is inherently linked to psychopathology" (Herek, 2012). Herek (2012) points out that many early theories and tests about homosexuality were prone to flaws due to bias. Many researchers already have a bias toward their studies so in order to try to avoid this, double-blind testing was done. This is a technique used in physiological experiments to ensure the minimum amount of bias. Both researcher and patient were unaware of each other, the only thing remaining were the facts. Researchers also studied homosexuals who were already being "treated" and could not represent the entire community. Even in times of complete opposition and bias, evidence still proved that homosexuality does not have any negative effects on society.

Homosexuality had been classified as a mental illness by the American Psychiatric Association since its founding in 1892. People suspected of homosexuality in 1950s America could be put into mental hospitals and subjected to cruel treatments such as electro-shock therapy, conversion/aversion therapy, and lobotomies. Jamie Coker-Robertson (2013), public relations and project management consultant (Owner) of JCR Consulting, sheds light on some of the cruelties from this time period in her article titled Shock the Gay Away: Secrets of Early Gay Aversion Therapy Revealed. Through television and movies, some people are familiar with Electro-shock therapy. Though now much less accepted it's surprisingly still legal and practiced in some places. The second treatment was conversion/aversion therapy. Conversion/aversion therapy, also known as reparative therapy by its allies, is a practice that attempts to change sexual orientation. Conversion is the process of conditioning a patient to react positively toward the opposite sex. This was depicted in an episode of the popular American television show, American Horror Story. The lesbian character in this scene is forced to touch herself while touching a man's genitals. She ends up vomiting and not being able to complete the exercise. In aversion therapy, the goal was to condition the patient's body to react negatively toward the same sex. Visually keyed shockers would be used. This "therapy" consisted of showing the patient a slideshow while they are hooked up to an electroshock machine. For example, the slideshow would have pictures of women if the patient were a lesbian. If the woman reacted positively, she would be shocked. In its portrayal on American Horror Story, the shocks are replaced with a vomit-inducing serum that‘s injected into the patient via IV. Many people don't believe the government would let something as cruel as conversion come back again, but it has reemerged in conversations lately due to vice-president, Mike Pence. The last major type of treatment used on homosexuals before the 1970s was lobotomies. A trans-orbital lobotomy is a surgical procedure in which the patient's brain is re-configured by tapping it with a metal rod through the edge of the eyeball. Robertson explains, "In this procedure, the surgeon entered the prefrontal area through the patient's eye sockets, using an instrument that resembled a common household ice pick" (Robertson, 2013). She also describes Dr. Walter Freeman, creator of the procedure. Forty percent of the lobotomies Freeman performed were on homosexuals who had perfect health prior (Robertson, 2013). He actually performed a botched lobotomy on U.S. President John F. Kennedy's sister, Rosemary, to help calm her mood swings and occasional violent outbursts. Like many of his other surgeries, she lived the rest of her life seriously disabled in a private psychiatric hospital (Robertson, 2013). Eventually, by 1954, Thorazine, a new pill, took over the market as a chemical lobotomy (Robertson, 2016). After this, the "ice pick" lobotomy was looked down upon. Then in 1973, "The APA removed homosexuality from its official Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)" (Robertson, 2013). This was around the time that women's rights and LGBT rights movements were making their way into the mainstream. This was also shortly after the Stonewall protests in 1969 and the formation of the Gay and Lesbian Liberation Movement in 1970. Stone Wall is known as the first big push that the LGBT community made toward a long fight for equality. These protests were the first time the community came together to fight back as one. Times have changed drastically and there's more support for the community than ever, many people are still against it. Some parents would prefer to never even teach their children that this huge community exists.

Just as the queer community has always existed, the portrayal of queer culture has been hinted at in "adult-jokes" on children's television for a long time. One must remember that not all representation is a good thing. Countless examples of misrepresentation exist in the media that have negative effects. An example of negative portrayal this can be found in an older cartoon that was known for being controversial, Cow and Chicken. An episode titled "Buffalo Gals" aired in 1998 and revolves around, "The Buffalo Gals, the motorcycle gang that randomly bursts into people's homes to chew on their carpets." This is a reference to masculine butch lesbians. This is a very extreme example but cartoons have had references and hints to homosexuality as a joke for their older viewers for years, even if it's not meant to be offensive. Dr. Jeffery Dennis (2009) explains the different ways that the gay community is portrayed on children's television programs in an article apart of The Journal of Homosexuality. He categorizes these ways into six different groups: Intimate friendships, inclusivity, hints, stereotypes, references, and physicality (Dennis, 2009). Dennis (2009) studied 102 episodes from 25 programs, noting each time a show used one of the six techniques of gay portrayal. The results showed a significant amount of gay imagery, good or bad, in the programs studied. Dennis (2009) concludes three possible explanations exist for this. The first is that the writers introduce these themes deliberately as a political strategy. The second is that the portrayals are deliberate jokes for adult viewers, not meant to be understood by younger audiences. The last theory is that they are entirely unintentional and taken the wrong way.

Kaelyn Flowerday (2014) agrees with Dennis's (2009) first explanation but in a different way. She believes that most traditional children's media use these tactics to subconsciously teach children traditional values. In her research, Flowerday (2014) compared two children's animated productions one old (1998) and one new (2010): Disney's Beauty and the Beast and Cartoon Network's Adventure Time, noting the differences in gender roles and expression. Her research suggests that cartoons can have many undertones that enforce gender codes. For example, Beauty and the Beast is commonly thought to be an empowering film due to its female protagonist, Belle. Belle appears to have traditionally masculine traits in the beginning (intelligence and adventurous), so she is bullied by the entire town as an outsider. By the end of the story, she appears to have lost her need to explore, assuming a more traditional feminine caretaker role. This is especially prevalent in the finale song. The lyrics include, "Certain as the sun rising in the east. Tale as old as time, song as old as rhyme, Beauty and the Beast" (Flowerday, 2014). Flowerday explains the text implies that natural law has prevailed (in other terms, things are back to the way they should be). Other examples of this include the antagonist and love interest, Gaston and Beast, and the perception of manhood. While many cartoons contribute to protecting social norms, new shows, such as Adventure Time, are starting to break many of the stereotypical gender and sexuality tropes in children's media through the same technique. Flowerday concludes that the show's popularity stems from its subversion from the obsession with heterosexuality that many shows fall victim to (Flowerday, 2014). The show portrays gender and sexuality so casually that it results in normalization which is a key factor in impacting children's perceptions of "normal" and making them more accepting.

The most successful program with queer portrayal is Steven Universe created by Rebecca Sugar, the first female writer on Cartoon Network. Steven Universe is an example of how children's television can have more of a purpose than arbitrary silliness. The show's premise revolves around a child, Steven, who is part human and part gem, an alien race. He lives with three rebel gems and fights to protect the world while dealing with the absence of his mother, the original leader of the alien rebels. The gems he lives with, called the crystal gems, were a part of a rebellion against their home planet to save the Earth. Steven's mother, Rose Quartz, was their leader. However, after winning the war, she fell in love with a human and decided to have a baby, Steven. As a gem, whose physical form was only a manifestation of light, in order to have Steven, she had to become part of him. She and her son could never exist at the same time. The show deals with topics such as body positivity and self-esteem, struggling to live up to expectations, healthy vs. abusive relationships and more. A unique aspect of the show is its female dominant cast. The gems, except for Steven, are a-gender aliens but identify as female. Therefore, there is a lot of queer representation on the show. The most prominent example of this is the character Garnet, who represents the embodiment of a healthy relationship. In the show, through the act of fusion two gems become one new gem. Garnet is a fusion between the gems, Ruby and Sapphire, who love each other so much they never want to be apart: their fusion creates a whole new gem. The character Pearl is also known to have been in love with Steven's mother before she disappeared. The show has an undeniable ability to teach important lessons and tackles mature topics in a very casual way.

Having a female dominant cast on a children's show can be fairly difficult to get past network executives. Dr. Greg Langner (2015) discusses queer representation on a popular television show, The Legend of Korra. The idea of a female protagonist unsettled executives at Nickelodeon who believed that because a large part of the network's audience were boys, the show wouldn't do well. This implies that boys wouldn't find interest in a show just because the main character is an nontraditional female (Lagner, 2015). On the contrary, the show's been extremely successful. Langner (2015) also explains that animation influences people through retellings of socially accepted realities. He (2015) says that media has the potential to make impacts on children and that more representation is necessary to reflect the world we live in. Many of these programs treat anything that isn't cisgender and heterosexual as if it doesn't exist.

As more programs have begun following in the footsteps of shows like Adventure Time and Steven Universe, censorship has become more of an issue. In adult programming, censorship can be as obvious as a bleep sound or a black block. However, in children's programming, it can be more subtle. Tristan Cooper (2016) explains different kinds of censorship: diluted violence, subtracted signage, replacement dialogue, and episodes. Violence in children's television is something that's always been censored. Cooper (2016) explains the "hit flash", a technique used as far back as the original Batman and Robin. For example, at the moment of contact of a punch, a colored flash will cover the screen. In the episode, "The Return", Garnet is hit with a gem destabilizer which literally tears her physical form apart. The UK version took out a few frames that really capture the shock of the scene. Cooper (2016) explains, "What should've been a shocking, gut-wrenching scene really ends up as a quick surprise with no weight whatsoever".

The second way Steven Universe has been censored, subtracted signage, is also understandable. Censoring dirty jokes on a children's show still, makes sense. Conner notes an example of this in Steven Universe. There's an arcade game called, "Meat-Beat Mania", this was edited out in the French version to just "Beat Mania". The original title implies "beating meat," which is a term for masturbation.

The third way Cooper (2016) explains is changing dialogue. Conner explains, "There are certain cultural touchstones that might seem like common knowledge in one country, but wouldn't translate well in another language." In the episode, "Story for Steven", Greg (Steven's father) recalls his early days courting Rose Quartz (Steven's mother). Greg's manager, Marty, tells him, "You want one huge woman when you could have multiple, smaller ones," and Greg replies, "Women are people, Marty." A replacement line was recorded for this where Marty takes less of a womanizer approach, which takes away from his character. Another use of this censor occurred in the episode titled, "Hit the Diamond" and was due to how romantic two female characters, Ruby and Sapphire, were being. The line, "I'm trying but all I wanna do is look at you," was changed to, "I'm trying but I'm having a hard time concentrating" in Sweden. This erases the cannon relationship of Ruby and Sapphire which is a core aspect of the show. These two characters have kissed and been romantic with each other in other episodes.

This leads to the next type of censor on Steven Universe: not broadcasting an episode altogether or cutting out entire scenes. This was just the case with the Primetime Emmy-winning episode, "The Answer", in Russia. This episode told the backstory of how Ruby and Sapphire met and began to fall in love with each other. Most of the scenes that are censored are usually for little or no reason at all, such as a scene that Amethyst picks her nose getting cut in Poland. The most recent scene to be changed was the 61st episode titled, "We Need to Talk", which a dance scene between Pearl and Rose was cut. The UK branch of Cartoon Network made a statement, "In the UK, we have to ensure everything on air is suitable for kids of any age at any time. We do feel that the slightly edited version is more comfortable for local kids and their parents" (Cooper, 2016). To show some perspective, a scene in which a heterosexual couple makes out on screen was only cut by a few seconds in some countries but a scene where a father kisses a baby on the forehead (in an in-show television program) was cut. As the show becomes more popular, creator, Rebecca Sugar, and the staff, also known as the Crewniverse, push the boundaries of children's programming even further.

There is one last type of censoring that's used in children's television: queer-baiting. Queer-baiting is a term used to describe the perceived attempt by canon creators (typically of television shows) to excite queer fans, but with no intention of actually showing a gay relationship on screen. In recent cases, it's usually not the creator's fault. An example of this is the show Adventure Time. In the show's lore, two female characters, Marceline and Princess Bubblegum, were confirmed by the show to be ex-girlfriends. As the show has progressed, the two characters have grown closer and have had a lot of romantic scenes. However, due to fear of more international censoring, the show's creators can't actually show much more than hints toward a relationship. Unlike Steven Universe, Adventure time can't get away with depicting queer relationships because these two characters aren't "a-gender aliens". If accused, writers can just say that Marceline and Bubblegum are just "best friends". However, even without the confirmation from the Adventure time staff, one can make the argument that the two are ex-lovers and may have a chance of getting back together solely based off of what is portrayed in the program. The first more obvious depictions of these were apparent in the song "I'm Just Your Problem" a song that Marceline sings to Bubblegum, similar to that of a break-up song. Another was a scene that shows Bubblegum waking up wearing Marceline's shirt and sniffing it and opening her wardrobe to show that there's a picture of the two on the door. Eventually, the show got a mini-series specifically about Marceline's backstory. Their relationship is even more evident in this series. This type of censoring is often used in many shows. Another example of this is the American version of Sailor Moon. The characters Sailor Uranus and Sailor Neptune were in a lesbian relationship in the original version, but in the American version, they are made to be very close cousins.

As can be seen in the evidence above, homophobia stems from the condemnation of sodomy. Even centuries ago, homosexuals (if hidden well) were able to live a very productive and healthy life. The real problems were the laws against them that forced them into psychiatrist care or death. There was no traverse affect that sexuality had on their societies. Many well-known scholars, medical professionals, and psychiatrists were often the first to argue the fair treatment of homosexuals. The issue of homosexuality isn't a new one; however, the issue of homosexuality on children's television is one that has been becoming more well-known. Television is now a staple of education for children in our society and what they're watching has a humongous long-term effect to how they see the world as adults. If television is a reflection of the society it's created in then why shouldn't children's television be more diverse? Will more positive queer representation in children's television programs have a negative or positive result, or will it have any effect at all? To answer this question, one must look at both sides of the argument.

Psychological Effects

Positive representation of LGBT community on children's television can not only enhance self-love and acceptance but can also help lower and prevent prejudice. One of the most supportive theories that support this is the Parasocial Contact Hypothesis. This hypothesis is the combination of two previous theories: The Contact Hypothesis and Parasocial Interaction Theory. The Contact Hypothesis suggests that "under appropriate conditions fictions, inter-personal contact: one of the most effective ways to reduce prejudice between majority and minority group members" (Schiappa, Greggs & Hewes, 2006). This means that knowing more members of a minority group will result in less prejudice toward that group. The Parasocial Interaction Theory states that new mass media can give the illusion of a face to face relationship (Schiappa, Greggs & Hewes, 2006). The human brain processes media, like television, similar to direct experiences. This theory also explains that people usually adapt their beliefs and behaviors based off of what they see on television. Therefore when combined, the Parasocial Contact Hypothesis states that more one is exposed to a certain group of people, the fewer judgments they'll make about them (Schiappa, Greggs & Hewes, 2006).

Dr. Schiappa, Dr. Gregory, and Dr. Hewes (2006) conducted a study on two hundred forty-five undergraduate students to discover any correlation between interaction and prejudice. The students completed a 74-item survey about their demographics, their amount of contact with homosexual people, viewing frequency of the famous television series Will & Grace as well as their initial attitudes toward gay men. The results supported their hypotheses. The first hypothesis stated, "Viewers perceive portrayals of the gay characters in Will & Grace to be positive" (Schiappa, Greggs & Hewes, 2006). The results support this hypothesis. 73% disagreed that the show had a negative portrayal of gay men and 81% of viewers agreed that the show is an important step forward because it features gay roles (Schiappa, Greggs & Hewes, 2006). This response correlated with viewing frequency. 63% agreed that the show encouraged positive attitudes of homosexuals. The writers explain, "A positive correlation was found between viewing frequency and the Parasocial interaction items concerning all four main characters; a slightly lower correlation was found when considering only those Parasocial interaction items concerning the two gay male characters. Viewing frequency correlated positively for wanting to know each character." (Schiappa, Greggs & Hewes, 2006). The second and third hypotheses were "The greater the viewing frequency of Will & Grace, the lower the level of sexual prejudice toward gay men" and, "The greater the level of Parasocial interaction with gay characters on Will & Grace, the lower the level of sexual prejudice toward gay men" (Schiappa, Greggs & Hewes, 2006). The frequency of viewing correlated negatively with scores on the ATGL (Herek's attitudes toward gays and lesbians) scale. The frequency viewing also correlated negatively with scores on the ATGL scale. The Parasocial interaction items concerning the two gay male characters, Parasocial interaction correlated negatively with scores on the ATGL scale and with the heteronormativity item. Agreement with the statement that the show "has encouraged me to think positively about homosexuals" correlated positively with Parasocial interaction. The authors explain that the results of contact with the television show were similar to the influence of direct contact with gay friends (Schiappa, Greggs & Hewes, 2006). Finally, the fourth and fifth hypotheses were, "The fewer gay acquaintances the subjects report, the stronger the association between viewing frequency and sexual prejudice toward gay men," as well as, "The fewer gay acquaintances the subjects report, the stronger the association between Parasocial interaction" (Schiappa, Greggs & Hewes, 2006). Schiappa, Hewes, and Greggs (2006) concluded that the less direct contact one has with gay people, the stronger the influence queer portrayal will have on reducing prejudice. Well, as we've previously discussed, some parents avoid introducing their children to sexuality. These children have the least direct contact with gay people, therefore according to this theory, the introduction of queer culture into children's television would result in preventing prejudice. There are some obvious flaws with the Parasocial Contact Hypothesis. The most well-known critique being that although contact can reduce prejudice, prejudice often reduces contact. Contact would not help reduce prejudice in situations in which one avoids it all together. However, applying this theory to children can yield different results.

Gordon Hodson, a professor at Brock University and writer for Psychology Today provides criticism on the Contact Hypothesis. Hodson proposes that although the theory may be true, prejudice also reduces contact. He notes, "contact effects on prejudice are stronger when interactants have no choice but to participate" (Hodson, 2012). This led to an experiment in prisons between black and white inmates. The results did not correlate with his criticism. Although this theory may not be as supportive for free-living adults, it could prove to be a very strong combatant for the early development of prejudice, specifically in kids. Technically, children will "have no choice but to participate" in watching because television is such a huge part of their lives.

Although younger generations can be much more accepting, children can still develop prejudice at a very young age. Dr. Sheri Levy, Director of Graduate Studies in the department of psychology at Stony Brook University, Dr. Lisa Rosenthal, assistant professor of psychology at the New York City campus of Pace University and Alberto Herrera-Alcazar, doctoral student in the social and health area in the psychology department at Stony Brook University all agree that racism appears in children at as early as five years old (Levy, Rosenthal & Herrera-Alcazar, 2010). In their book, The Psychology of Prejudice and Discrimination, the three authors describe different explanations for prejudice in children. These include the Authoritarian Personality, Social Learning Theory, Intergroup Contact Theory, Cognitive-Developmental Theory and Evolutionary Theory (Levy, Rosenthal & Herrera-Alcazar, 2010). The most important and scientifically supported of these theories are Intergroup Contact Theory and Social Learning Theory. The first theory, Intergroup Contact Theory, proposed by Gordon Allport, suggests that "prejudice partially grows out of a lack of personal, positive contact among members of different groups" and that, "Intergroup harmony can result from increased positive intergroup contact" (Levy, 2010). This theory was applied later on to assist in creating the Para-Social Contact Hypothesis.

Social Learning Theory, also proposed by Allport in 1954 suggests that "children learn prejudice by observing and imitating important others, such as parents and teachers, becoming gradually more prejudiced with age" (Levy, 2010). It suggests that children imitate and eventually believe what they are exposed to. Interestingly enough, evidence shows that when prejudice is discussed, it is lowered (Levy, 2010). This ideology validates the possible benefits of increased positive representation of the queer community on children's television as well as the lessons television shows like Steven Universe can teach.

According to psychological theory, being exposed to a diverse variety of characters on television will effectively lower prejudice. Applying this method to newer generations can produce positive results. Both the Parasocial Contact Hypothesis and Social Learning theory reinforce the idea that increased positive contact with specific minority groups through television characters will aid in the reduction and prevention of prejudice in children. Contact is a more effective combatant when participants, "have no choice but to participate" (Hodson, 2012), and children won't because television is a staple of their daily lives.

The Opposition

In order to properly argue that LGBT portrayal in children's television could have a positive impact on the world, one must look at the opposite side of this argument. One of the most direct and well-organized groups on the opposite side of this argument is called One Million Moms. One Million Moms is an online project apart of the American Family Association, a non-profit conservative organization. The group has been a part of many protests involving television controversy. Their mission goal is "to stop the exploitation of children" in entertainment media (One Million Moms, 2016). Some of their most recent projects have been directed toward television shows that they find aren't appropriate. They are currently against TV Land's, Impastor, for being too mature for the network it's on (TV Land) and for portraying Christianity in a negative light.

One Million Moms is widely known for protesting against LGBT representation in television and film. A recent example of this was when Disney's, Good Luck Charlie, portrayed a little girl with two moms. The group states, "Disney decided to be politically correct versus providing family-friendly programming. Conservative families need to urge Disney to exclude confusing topics that children are far too young to comprehend" (Lee, 2014). Morgan Lee, Assistant Editor of Christian Today, explains, "Disney first made its announcement through gay activist group, the Gay & Lesbian Alliance against Defamation (GLAAD), which stated on its website that the organization had been ‘consulted on the script for the Disney Channel's episode of 'Good Luck Charlie' in which a character's two moms are introduced. The episode marks the first time the Disney Channel will feature an LGBT character in one of its original programs" (Lee, 2014). Ross Murray, director of news for GLAAD, made a statement on the situation arguing, "There are children with gay or lesbian parents in their school, worshiping in church, working on the job, or serving in the military, so this television show isn't really that different than what kids encounter on a day-to-day basis" (Lee, 2014).

The first argument against queer representation is that introducing homosexuality to children implies sex and children shouldn't know about sex until they're older. This statement implies that relationships are defined by sexual activity. This statement implies that relationships are defined by sexual activity. This assumption also entirely negates the asexual population. Asexual is sexual identity umbrella term that refers to a person who has either no interest in sex in a relationship, low sex-drive or only interested in it after establishing a strong emotional bond. If relationships imply sex according to opposing groups, this would also mean straight relationships do as well. Yet, most, if not all media make an exception for heterosexual relationships. Many children's shows, especially non-animation, almost obsess over making romance the main plot between characters. Jeffery Dennis, Ph.D., explains, "Any hour of evening programming on the three major children networks, Nickelodeon, the Disney Channel, and Cartoon Network, will portray boys and girls of every age, from toddlers to teenagers, swooning over persons of the other sex, having boyfriends and girlfriends, going steady, falling in and out of love, but never a word suggesting that heterosexual experience is not universal human experience" (Dennis, 2009). Though many believe in the ideal that children should not be educated about sexuality until they are older, it has had a traverse effect on America specifically. Being educated about sexuality can only lead to safer sex and less judgment. America's obsession with puritan ideals doesn't translate to its higher rate of adolescent pregnancy, birth, abortion and sexually transmitted disease (STD) rates. Greg Toppo (2015), a national K-12 education reporter for USA Today, discusses the reasons as to why sex education the U.S. is not as effective as it should be and America's puritan ideals on sex in his article "Pregnancy rate, STD stats show sex ed in U.S. is not working". Toppo (2015), talked with Amy Lang, a Seattle-based sexuality and parenting expert, and historian Jonathan Zimmerman. Toppo (2015) explains that adults are hesitant of sex education because of a fear that it will teach kids to be more sexually active. Lang explains, "Sexuality is something that most people try to pretend is not an inherent part of being human. Adults are completely flustered by it and wish it would go away. As a culture and even as individuals, we don't want to embrace the fact that we're sexual creatures" (Toppo, 2015). Lang goes on to discuss the results of avoiding these topics with kids, "teens get a lot of their information about sex from watching pornography. They come into their sexual relationships thinking they already know how to do it. What's missing is that they don't have a fundamental understanding of sexuality — the social, cultural, emotional, an inherent aspect of being human" (Toppo, 2015). These teens will turn to their net best source of information, new media, which unfortunately isn't always accurate. Sex education, however, isn't always accurate as well. According to the Guttmacher Institute, of the states that require some type of sex education, only 13 require that the instruction is medically accurate (Toppo, 2015). While there is a sex education system in schools, it doesn't mean that they're teaching the right lessons. This is due to the internal struggle that these instructors and parents have of whether it's good or not. So instead, many classes will push abstinence instead of actually teaching important lessons like identity, protection, gay sex, and emotions. Amy Lang explains, "If kids are well-informed about something that's part of their health, they make better choices" (Toppo, 2015). Kids shouldn't be kept in the dark about sex. It's a natural instinct for humans to be sexual. And by knowing about all the options one's identity can be, one will feel free to actually be themselves.

Another argument made is that LGBT people are overly sexual, therefore sex is implied. This argument implies the gay community only cares about sex, however, children may not know about sex at all, so how could they know about this assumption in the first place? Only adults know this assumption due to misrepresentation. Examples of this include Brian's cousin on Family Guy and other relationships on Queer as Folk. Queer women, while not necessarily thought to be overly sexual with each other, are generally sexualized (usually to men). This can be due to lesbian pornography (not always real lesbians) and popular music videos that will often misrepresent queer women. Some straight men see wlw (woman love woman) relationships as personal entertainment. They see them as sex objects rather than people. This idea stems from the ways that bisexual women have been portrayed in popular media such as music videos and pornography. As a queer woman, it's not unusual to hear, "that's hot" as a response to coming out to a straight male. This level of discrimination is obvious through examination. According to recent data released by Pornhub, a popular pornography video sharing website, Lesbian was the most searched for term in most states by 2016 (Khazan, 2016).An example of this over-sexualization is the music video for "Only a girl" performed by Gia and directed by Matthew Bowman. The lyrics to "Only a Girl" imply that women are easier and better to date than men. This is a wrongful accusation that many straight women believe. When compared to a music video that's production actually involved real queer women, a few differences can be spotted. Sex is the selling point of most media but most of the video for "Only a Girl" involves a bunch of girls looking into the camera and touching each other sensually. "Cliff's Edge" written, performed and directed by Hayley Kiyoko (a queer musician) does have scenes similar but the difference is its only two girls: Hayley and her ‘girlfriend' character. Unlike "Only a Girl", this video has a story and has more than sex. Its story is to show the good parts and bad parts of relationships. It portrays the dates and kissing but also the arguing and crying.

A common misconception that has led to the accusation that promiscuity comes with queerness is that gay men have commitment issues in their relationships. On the contrary, according to Deborah Schurman-Kauflin Ph.D., writer for Psychology Today, Queer relationships actually tend to be more stable than heterosexual ones. She (2016) performed a study interviewing 200 people. Interviews were conducted over the phone and lasted from forty-five minutes to two hours each. Schurman-Kauflin (2016) explains, "When asked about their love lives, gays were more likely to have long-term relationships. In fact, 59% had been in a stable, loving relationship for three or more years. They were very committed to their significant others and reported high levels of joy in their lives. Only 19% admitted to cheating on a loved one, which is much lower than the national average". Gay couples admitted to having dealt with higher stress levels due to societal prejudice, however after overcoming their own problems with acceptance, gay individuals agreed that there was an exciting sense of freedom. Because of this, gay couples were much more likely to be open about their desires in relationships. Schurman-Kauflin (2016) compares these results with the straight couples, "Heterosexuals showed more instability in their love lives. Only 47% had been in a stable, loving relationship when surveyed. Even less reported having been in a long-term love relationship. In fact, only 42% said that they had been involved in a committed relationship for longer than three years. Of those who had married, over 50% had been divorced. Almost half admitted to cheating on a spouse or loved one. Two-thirds said they were unhappy with their sex lives. They said it was difficult to communicate their desires to their mates, and so, they had unsatisfactory sex".Schurman-Kauflin (2016) concluded that being honest and accepting of one's self creates a sense of freedom which translates into happiness and stability. Regardless of sexual preference or gender identity, being open and loving one's self is the key to having a stable life. Setting standards of how children are supposed to look, feel and love as they develop can yield a sense of restraint and imprisonment.

The last argument is that being exposed to LGBT characters will "turn" children gay. This argument is based on the idea that people aren't born gay and the gayness is something that can be changed, or "cured". Scientifically, this is false as can be seen from a quick overview of psychiatric studies explored dating back to the 1800s. In a newer study, Evolutionary geneticist, William Rice, suggests homosexuality occurs because of differences in sensitivity to sex hormones from "epigenetic" changes (Norton, 2016). He explains that "as an embryo develops, sex-related genes are turned on and off in response to fluctuating levels of hormones in the womb, produced by both mother and child. This tug of war benefits the unborn child, keeping male or female development on a steady course even amid spikes in hormones. But if these so-called epigenetic changes persist once the child is born and has children of its own, some of those offspring may be homosexual" (Norton, 2016). Norton (2016) goes on to explain, "At many key points of gestation, male and female fetuses are often exposed to similar amounts of testosterone. Levels of the hormone can even be higher than normal in females and lower than normal in males without any effect on genital or brain structure" (Norton, 2016). According to this hypothesis, homosexuality may be a carry-over from one's parents' own prenatal resistance to the hormones of the opposite sex (Norton, 2016). The scientists propose that differences in sensitivity to sex hormones result from "epigenetic" changes. An interesting fact that Norton (2016) notes is that homosexuality is known to run in families. If one of a set of identical twins is gay, there's a 20% probability that the other will be, too. Rice (2016) also notes, "Homosexuality isn't just a human thing". Norton explains that homosexuality is actually a very common practice among many types of living creatures such as California gulls from which about 14% of pairs are female-female, Australian black swans from which 6% of pairs are male-male, and male sheep from which 8% are attracted exclusively to male partners (Norton, 2016).

This is not the only study that has supported the theory that homosexuality is something that people are born with. There's a substantial amount of evidence that suggests homosexuality is something that happens before birth. A 2008 Swedish study of twins published in The Archives of Sexual Behavior concluded that "Homosexual behavior is largely shaped by genetics and random environmental factors" (Schlatter & Steinback, 2011). Even the American Psychiatric Association concluded by 1994 that. "Homosexuality is not a matter of individual choice" and that research, "Suggests that the homosexual orientation is in place very early in the life cycle, possibly even before birth" (Schlatter & Steinback, 2011). The idea that gayness can be changed led to "ex-gay" religious ministries that attempt to "cure" homosexuality through mental therapy and Christianity. In 2009, APA adopted a resolution that reputed ex-gay therapy. It concluded that instances of people going gay to straight were extremely rare and that, "many individuals continued to experience same-sex sexual attractions after therapy" (Schlatter & Steinback, 2011). So not only is full conversion medically impossible but according to the Pan-American Health Organization, it also could "represent a serious threat to the health and well-being of affected people. In none of its individual manifestations does homosexuality constitute a disorder or an illness and therefore it requires no cure" (Schlatter & Steinback, 2011). Not to mention that many of these anti-gay groups have been ruined by their own founders. The founder of Exodus International, Michael Bussee, left the organization in 1979 with a fellow counselor because they had fallen in love. George Rekers, former board member of NARTH and leading scholar of the anti-LGBT Christian right also was revealed to have been in a gay relationship in 2010. Even psychiatrists have reputed their own studies. Robert Spitzer did this in 2012 (Schlatter & Steinback, 2011). Yet, anti-gay groups continue to use the study as proof that sexuality can be changed. Exodus International, one of the largest ex-gay ministries, shut down in 2013 when its director, Alan Chambers issued an apology to the gay community stating that he was still gay himself, even though he was married to a woman (Schlatter & Steinback, 2011)Pew Research Center, 2013.

Although lately, more accepting churches have risen up, religion is a critical issue that stands in the way of equality. The first explanation most Christian homophobes refer to is a verse from the bible, "If a man also shall lie with mankind, as he lieth with a woman, both of them have committed an abomination." Although it's beginning to change, sexuality and faith have been opposing topics for quite a while. According to Pew Research Center, one-third of religious LGBT adults say there's a conflict between their beliefs and their identity and about 29% of all LGBT adults, have been made to feel unwelcome in their churches (Pew Research Center). These statistics aren't very surprising. This conflict is prevalent everywhere in popular culture. The popular song "Same Love" that features Mary Lambert's song "She keeps me warm". She sings, "I'm not crying on Sundays". Later, Lambert explained that after she came out, her church banned her. Another song, "Take me to Church" by Hozier is an entirely dedicated to this conflict. There are logical explanations for misinterpretation in the bible. As a reminder, homophobia stems from hate against sodomy. It was a sin to not procreate because the human species was worried about survival (rather than over-population). However, many heterosexuals perform sodomy too. It's easy to forget some details from a book that's about 2,700 years old. Most forget that the bible was written by man, not god. According to the Catholicism, it was written by mankind while he was embraced with the holy spirit so there's a possibility that personal biases of 2,700-year-old men have made their way into sermons of the 21st century.

Every argument anti-gay groups make against homosexuality's "effect" on children can be disproved with logic and science. Relationships on children's television do not imply sex exists; however, introducing kids to sexuality can yield positive results. Queer relationships are equally stable and loving as heterosexual relationships. The rate of sexual activity is reliant on each individual, not sexuality. Being able to be open and accepting yields a sense of happiness and stability. Lastly, no one can be "turned" gay. Studies have proven gayness just a pre-birth mutation depending on sex hormones and genetics. Positive portrayal of LGBT characters in children's programming has neither negative effects nor repercussions other than the introduction of preference.

Conclusion

Increasing representation of LGBT characters and culture on children's television would reduce prejudice and empower self-love and acceptance in younger generations to come. Throughout history, sexuality hasn't had any traverse effects on society. Evidence shows that well-known scholars were often first to argue for equality. Psychological theory suggests that contact yields a greater knowledge of said group and children imitate and believe what they're exposed to. Therefore, if children are exposed to diversity and acceptance, it'll become a fundamental piece of their lives as adults. Opposing arguments can be disproved with science and logic quite easily. If children's television networks and writers allowed positive portrayals of openly queer characters, prejudice would lower and happiness and self-security would increase in newer generations over time.

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